Connection of bones. The structure of the human skeleton. Bones of the body and their connections What tissue is the basis of the bones of the skeleton, what substance gives the human skeleton strength, what is the composition of the bones

This is a creditable job! There are a lot of questions... Help, please! I only threw half of it here. Answer please! Prokaryotes, unlike eukaryotes, have

Select one answer: a. mitochondria and plastids b. plasma membrane c. nuclear substance without shell d. many large lysosomes participate in the entry and movement of substances in the cell Select one or more answers: a. endoplasmic reticulum b. ribosomes c. liquid part of the cytoplasm d. plasma membrane e. Centrioles of the cell center Ribosomes are Select one answer: a. two membrane cylinders b. round membranous bodies c. microtubule complex d. two non-membrane subunits. A plant cell, unlike an animal cell, has Select one answer: a. mitochondria b. plastids c. plasma membrane d. Golgi apparatus Large molecules of biopolymers enter the cell through the membrane Select one answer: a. by pinocytosis b. by osmosis c. by phagocytosis d. by diffusion When the tertiary and quaternary structure of protein molecules in the cell is disrupted, they cease to function Select one answer: a. enzymes b. carbohydrates c. ATP d. lipids Question text

What is the relationship between plastic and energy metabolism?

Select one answer: a. energy metabolism supplies oxygen to plastic b. plastic metabolism supplies organic substances for energy c. plastic metabolism supplies ATP molecules for energy d. plastic metabolism supplies minerals for energy

How many ATP molecules are stored during glycolysis?

Select one answer: a. 38 b. 36 c. 4 d. 2

The reactions of the dark phase of photosynthesis involve

Select one answer: a. molecular oxygen, chlorophyll and DNA b. carbon dioxide, ATP and NADPH2 c. water, hydrogen and tRNA d. carbon monoxide, atomic oxygen and NADP+

The similarity between chemosynthesis and photosynthesis is that in both processes

Select one answer: a. Solar energy is used to form organic matter b. The energy released during the oxidation of inorganic substances is used for the formation of organic substances c. organic substances are formed from inorganic substances d. the same metabolic products are formed

Information about the sequence of amino acids in a protein molecule is copied in the nucleus from DNA molecule to molecule

Select one answer: a. rRNA b. mRNA c. ATP d. tRNA Which sequence correctly reflects the path of implementation of genetic information Select one answer: a. trait --> protein --> mRNA --> gene --> DNA b. gene --> DNA --> trait --> protein c. gene --> mRNA --> protein --> trait d. mRNA --> gene --> protein --> trait

The entire set of chemical reactions in a cell is called

Select one answer: a. fermentation b. metabolism c. chemosynthesis d. photosynthesis

The biological meaning of heterotrophic nutrition is

Select one answer: a. consumption of inorganic compounds b. synthesis of ADP and ATP c. obtaining building materials and energy for cells d. synthesis of organic compounds from inorganic

All living organisms in the process of life use energy, which is stored in organic substances created from inorganic

Select one answer: a. plants b. animals c. mushrooms d. viruses

During the process of plastic exchange

Select one answer: a. more complex carbohydrates are synthesized from less complex ones b. fats are converted to glycerol and fatty acids c. proteins are oxidized to form carbon dioxide, water, nitrogen-containing substances d. energy is released and ATP is synthesized

The principle of complementarity underlies interaction

Select one answer: a. nucleotides and the formation of a double-stranded DNA molecule b. amino acids and formation of the primary protein structure c. glucose and the formation of a fiber polysaccharide molecule d. glycerol and fatty acids and the formation of a fat molecule

The importance of energy metabolism in cellular metabolism is that it provides synthesis reactions

Select one answer: a. nucleic acids b. vitamins c. enzymes d. ATP molecules

The enzymatic breakdown of glucose without oxygen is

Select one answer: a. plastic exchange b. glycolysis c. preparatory stage of exchange d. biological oxidation

The breakdown of lipids to glycerol and fatty acids occurs in

Select one answer: a. oxygen stage of energy metabolism b. process of glycolysis c. during plastic exchange d. preparatory stage of energy metabolism

Task 16 (- choose one answer)

Which cell organelle is located near the nucleus, and during mitosis forms
spindle poles and participates in the divergence of chromosomes towards them?
Answer options
1- lamellar complex;
2- microtubule;
3- cell center;
4- ribosome;
5- endoplasmic reticulum.

Task 17 (- choose one answer)
Name the structures from which centrioles are formed.
Possible answers:
1- microvilli;
2- microtubules;
3- myofibrils;
4- ribosomes;
5- membranes.

Task 18 (- choose one answer)
Which organelle provides cell bioenergy?
Possible answers:

3-lamella complex;
4- centrioles;
5- mitochondria.

Task 19 (- choose one answer)
Name the organelle that is formed
one membrane bubble containing a set of
hydrolytic enzymes.
Possible answers:
1- ribosome; 4- centrioles;
2- liposome; 5-lamella complex.
3- lysosome;

Task 20 (- choose one answer)
Name the cell organelle that consists of two cylindrical
structures formed from microtubules located
perpendicular to each other, fanning out from them in different directions
microtubules.
Possible answers:
1- mitochondria; 2- cell center; 3- endoplasmic reticulum;
4- lysosome; 5-lamella complex.
Task 21 (- choose several answer options)
List the features of the nucleus characteristic of cells, intensively
synthesizing proteins?
Possible answers:
1- predominance of heterochromatin in the nucleus;
2- predominance of euchromatin in the nucleus;
3- the presence of clearly defined one (several) nucleoli;
4- nucleoli are not clearly defined;
5- basophilia of the cytoplasm.

Task 22 (- choose one answer)
In the cell, the proteins that produce proteins for “export” are well expressed, all
organelles EXCEPT:
Possible answers:
1- granular endoplasmic reticulum;
2- agranular endoplasmic reticulum;
3- mitochondria;
4- lysosomes;
5-lamella complex.

Task 23 (- choose one answer)
Name the cell organelle that is a system of superimposed
flattened tanks on top of each other, the wall of which is formed
one membrane; Bubbles bud from the tanks.
Possible answers:
1- mitochondria;
2-plate complex
3- endoplasmic reticulum;
4-cell center;
5- lysosomes.

Task 24 (- choose one answer)
Lipids in the cell membrane are arranged in layers. How many of these
lipid layers contained in the membrane?
Possible answers:
1- 1; 4- 4;
2- 2; 5- 6.
3- 3;

Task 25 (- choose one answer)
Name the organelle in which proteins synthesized in the cell are sorted
packaged in a membrane shell, connected to other
organic compounds.
Possible answers:
1- core; 2-lamellar complex; 3- ribosome; 4- lysosome;
5- endoplasmic reticulum

Choose one correct answer. 1. The outer cell membrane ensures a) a constant shape of the cell b) metabolism and energy in

b) osmotic pressure in the cell d) selective permeability

2. Cellulose membranes, as well as chloroplasts, do not have cells

a) algae b) mosses c) ferns d) animals

3. In a cell, the nucleus and organelles are located in

a) cytoplasm _ c) endoplasmic reticulum

b) Golgi complex d) vacuoles

4. Synthesis occurs on the membranes of the granular endoplasmic reticulum

a) proteins b) carbohydrates c) lipids d) nucleic acids

5. Starch accumulates in

a) chloroplasts b) nucleus c) leucoplasts d) chromoplasts

6. Proteins, fats and carbohydrates accumulate in

a) nucleus b) lysosomes c) Golgi complex d) mitochondria

7. Participates in the formation of the fission spindle

a) cytoplasm b) cell center c) vacuole d) Golgi complex

8. An organoid consisting of many interconnected cavities, in
which accumulate organic substances synthesized in the cell - these are

a) Golgi complex c) mitochondria

b) chloroplast d) endoplasmic reticulum

9. The exchange of substances between the cell and its environment occurs through
shell due to the presence in it

a) lipid molecules b) carbohydrate molecules

b) numerous holes d) nucleic acid molecules

10. Organic substances synthesized in the cell move to organelles
a) with the help of the Golgi complex c) with the help of vacuoles

b) with the help of lysosomes d) through the channels of the endoplasmic reticulum

11. The breakdown of organic substances in the cell, accompanied by release.
energy and the synthesis of a large number of ATP molecules occurs in

a) mitochondria b) lysosomes c) chloroplasts d) ribosomes

12. Organisms whose cells do not have a formed nucleus, mitochondria,
Golgi complex, belongs to the group

a) prokaryotes b) eukaryotes c) autotrophs d) heterotrophs

13. Prokaryotes include

a) algae b) bacteria c) fungi d) viruses

14. The nucleus plays an important role in the cell, as it is involved in synthesis

a) glucose b) lipids c) fiber d) nucleic acids and proteins

15. Organelle, delimited from the cytoplasm by one membrane, containing
many enzymes that break down complex organic substances
to simple monomers, this

a) mitochondrion b) ribosome c) Golgi complex d) lysosome

9. In sheep of a certain breed, among animals with ears of normal length, there are also completely earless individuals. When crossing long-eared animals with each other, and

earless offspring are similar to their parents. Hybrids between long-eared and earless have short ears. What kind of offspring will be produced when such hybrids are crossed with each other?

10. Immunity to smut in oats dominates over susceptibility to this disease. What offspring in the first generation will be obtained from homozygous immune individuals with plants affected by smut? From crossing first generation hybrids? Write the result of a backcrossing of F1 hybrids with a parental form lacking immunity.

11. A rare gene in the population (h) causes hereditary anophthalmia (eyelessness) in humans, the dominant allelic gene (H) determines the normal development of the eyes. Heterozygotes for this trait have smaller eyeballs. The spouses are heterozygous for the gene (H). Determine the genotypes and phenotypes of possible offspring.

12. Albinism in humans is inherited as a recessive trait. In a family where one of the spouses is an albino and the other has normal pigmentation, the first child has normal pigment development, and the second is an albino. Determine the genotypes of parents and children. What is the probability of having a third child healthy?

13. In humans, the gene for normal skin pigmentation is dominant to the gene for albinism (lack of pigment in the skin). The husband and wife have normal skin pigmentation, and their first child in the family is an albino. Determine the genotypes of all family members. What is the probability of having children with normal pigmentation?

14. In humans, six-fingeredness is determined by a dominant gene, and five-fingeredness is determined by its recessive allele. What is the probability of having a five-fingered child in a family where both parents are heterozygous six-fingered.

15. When crossing red strawberries with each other, red berries are always obtained. When crossed with a white one, the berries are white. When varieties are crossed with each other, pink berries are obtained. When crossing strawberries with pink berries, there were 45 bushes with red berries. How many bushes will resemble the parent forms?

16. In tomatoes, tall growth dominates over dwarfism, and the dissected leaf shape dominates over potato-shaped leaves. Determine the genotypes of the parents if the following splitting is obtained in the offspring: 924 - tall tomatoes with dissected leaves; 317 - tall tomatoes with potato-shaped leaves; 298 - dwarf tomatoes with dissected leaves; 108 - dwarf tomatoes with potato-shaped leaves.

When crossed with each other, red-fruited strawberry plants always produce offspring with red berries (A), and white-fruited strawberry plants always produce offspring with white ones (a). As a result of crossing

I get pink berries from both varieties (Aa).
a) What kind of offspring will be produced when hybrid strawberry plants with pink berries are crossed with each other?
b) What offspring will be produced when red-fruited strawberries are pollinated with pollen from a hybrid plant with pink berries?

This article will consider the anatomical skeleton of the human leg, foot, arm, hand, pelvis, chest, neck, skull, shoulder and forearm: diagram, structure, description.

The skeleton is the supporting support for the organs and muscles that support our life and allows us to move. Each part consists of several sections, and they, in turn, are made of bones that can change over time and subsequently receive injuries.

Sometimes there are anomalies in the growth of bones, but with proper and timely correction they can be restored to anatomical shape. In order to identify developmental pathologies in time and provide first aid, it is necessary to know the structure of the body. Today we will talk about the structure of the human skeleton in order to understand once and for all the variety of bones and their functions.

Human skeleton - bones, their structure and names: diagram, photo from front, side, back, description

The skeleton is the collection of all the bones. Each of them also has a name. They differ in structure, density, shape and different purposes.

When born, a newborn has 270 bones, but under the influence of time they begin to develop, uniting with each other. Therefore, there are only 200 bones in the adult body. The skeleton has 2 main groups:

• Axial
• Additional

• Skull (facial, brain parts)
• Thorax (includes 12 thoracic vertebrae, 12 pairs of ribs, sternum and manubrium)
• Spine (cervical and lumbar)

The additional part includes:

• Upper limb girdle (including collarbones and shoulder blades)
• Upper limbs (shoulders, forearms, hands, phalanges)
• Lower extremity girdle (sacrum, coccyx, pelvis, radius)
• Lower extremities (patella, femur, tibia, fibula, phalanges, tarsus and metatarsus)

Also, each of the sections of the skeleton has its own structural nuances. For example, the skull is divided into the following parts:

• Frontal
• Parietal
• Occipital
• Temporal
• Zygomatic
• Lower jaw
• Upper jaw
• tearful
• Bow
• Lattice
• Wedge-shaped

The spine is a ridge that is formed thanks to the bones and cartilage lined along the back. It serves as a kind of frame to which all other bones are attached. Unlike other sections and bones, the spine is characterized by a more complex placement and has several component vertebrae:

• Cervical spine (7 vertebrae, C1-C7);
• Thoracic region (12 vertebrae, Th1-Th12);
• Lumbar (5 vertebrae, L1-L5);
• Sacral section (5 vertebrae, S1-S5);
• Coccygeal region (3–5 vertebrae, Co1-Co5).

All departments consist of several vertebrae, which affect the internal organs, the ability to function the limbs, neck and other parts of the body. Almost all the bones in the body are interconnected, so regular monitoring and timely treatment for injuries is necessary to avoid complications in other parts of the body.

Main parts of the human skeleton, number, weight of bones

The skeleton changes throughout a person's life. This is due not only to natural growth, but also to aging, as well as some diseases.

• As mentioned earlier, at birth a child has 270 bones. But over time, many of them unite, forming a natural skeleton for adults. Therefore, fully formed humans can have between 200 and 208 bones. 33 of them are usually not paired.
• The growth process can last up to 25 years, so the final structure of the body and bones can be seen on an x-ray upon reaching this age. This is why many people suffering from diseases of the spine and bones take medication and various therapeutic methods only until they are 25 years old. After all, after growth stops, the patient’s condition can be maintained, but it cannot be improved.

The weight of the skeleton is determined as a percentage of the total body weight:

• 14% in newborns and children
• 16% in women
• 18% in men

The average representative of the stronger sex has 14 kg of bones of his total weight. Women only 10 kg. But many of us are familiar with the phrase: “Broad bone.” This means that their structure is slightly different, and their density is greater. In order to determine whether you belong to this type of people, just use a centimeter and wrap it around your wrist. If the volume reaches 19 cm or more, then your bones are really stronger and larger.

Skeletal mass is also affected by:

• Age
• Nationality

Many representatives of different nations of the world differ significantly from each other in height and even physique. This is due to evolutionary development, as well as the tightly ingrained genotype of the nation.

The main parts of the skeleton contain different numbers of bones, for example:

• 23 – in the skull
• 26 – in the spinal columns
• 25 – in the ribs and sternum
• 64 – in the upper extremities
• 62 – in the lower extremities

They can also change throughout a person’s life under the influence of the following factors:

• Diseases of the musculoskeletal system, bones and joints
• Obesity
• Injuries
• Active sports and dancing
• Poor nutrition

Anatomical skeleton of a leg, human foot: diagram, description

The legs belong to the lower extremities section. They have several departments and function thanks to mutual support.

The legs are attached to the lower limb girdle (pelvis), but not all of them are spaced evenly. There are several that are located only at the back. If we consider the structure of the legs from the front, we can note the presence of the following bones:

• Femoral
• Patellar
• Bolshebertsov
• Malobertsovykh
• Tarsal
• Plusnevyh
• Phalanx

The heel bone is located at the back. It connects the leg and foot. However, it is impossible to see it on an x-ray from the front. In general, the foot differs in its structure and includes:

• Heel bone
• Ram
• Cuboid
• Scaphoid
• 3rd wedge-shaped
• 2nd wedge-shaped
• 1st wedge-shaped
• 1st metatarsal
• 2nd metatarsal
• 3rd metatarsal
• 4th metatarsal
• 5th metatarsal
• Main phalanxes
• Terminal phalanges

All bones are connected to each other, which allows the foot to function fully. If one of the parts is injured, the work of the entire department will be disrupted, therefore, for various injuries, it is necessary to take a number of methods aimed at immobilizing the affected area and contact a traumatologist or surgeon.

Anatomical skeleton of a human arm and hand: diagram, description

Hands allow us to lead a full life. However, this is one of the most complex sections in the human body. After all, many bones complement each other’s functions. Therefore, if one of them is damaged, we will not be able to return to our previous activities without receiving medical assistance. The skeleton of the hand means:

• Clavicle
• Shoulder and scapula joints
• Spatula
• humerus
• Elbow joint
• Ulna
• Radius
• Wrist
• Metacarpal bones
• Presence of proximal, intermediate and distal phalanges

The joints connect the main bones to each other, therefore they provide not only their movement, but also the work of the entire arm. If the intermediate or distal phalanges are injured, other parts of the skeleton will not suffer, since they are not connected to more important parts. But if there are problems with the collarbone, humerus or ulna, the person will not be able to control and fully move the arm.

Therefore, if you have received any injury, you cannot ignore going to the doctor, because in the case of tissue fusion without proper help, this is fraught with complete immobility in the future.

Anatomical skeleton of the human shoulder and forearm: diagram, description

The shoulders not only connect the arms to the body, but also help the body acquire the necessary proportionality from an aesthetic point of view.

At the same time, it is one of the most vulnerable parts of the body. After all, the forearm and shoulders bear a huge load, both in everyday life and when playing sports with heavy weight. The structure of this part of the skeleton is as follows:

• Clavicle (has the connecting function of the scapula and the main skeleton)
• Shoulder blade (combines the muscles of the back and arms)
• Coracoid process (holds all ligaments)
• Brachial process (protects from damage)
• Glenoid cavity of the scapula (also has a connecting function)
• Head of the humerus (forms an abutment)
• Anatomical neck of the humerus (supports the fibrous tissue of the joint capsule)
• Humerus (provides movement)

As you can see, all sections of the shoulder and forearm complement each other's functions, and are also placed in such a way as to provide maximum protection to the joints and thinner bones. With their help, the hands move freely, starting from the phalanges of the fingers and ending with the collarbones.

Anatomical skeleton of the human chest and pelvis: diagram, description

The chest in the body protects the most important organs and the spine from injury, and also prevents their displacement and deformation. The pelvis plays the role of a frame that keeps the organs immobile. It is also worth saying that it is to the pelvis that our legs are attached.

The chest, or rather its frame, consists of 4 parts:

• Two sides
• Front
• Rear

The frame of the human chest is represented by the ribs, the sternum itself, the vertebrae and the ligaments and joints connecting them.

The back support is the spine, and the front part of the chest consists of cartilage. In total, this part of the skeleton has 12 pairs of ribs (1 pair attached to a vertebra).

By the way, the chest encircles all vital organs:

• Heart
• Lungs
• Pancreas
• Part of the stomach

However, when diseases of the spine occur, as well as its deformation, the ribs and parts of the cage can also change, creating unnecessary compression and pain.

The shape of the sternum can vary depending on genetics, breathing patterns, and overall health. Infants, as a rule, have a protruding chest, but during the period of active growth it becomes less visually pronounced. It is also worth saying that in women it is more well developed and has advantages in width compared to men.

The pelvis differs significantly depending on the gender of the person. Women have the following characteristics:

• Large width
• Shorter length
• The shape of the cavity resembles a cylinder
• The entrance to the pelvis is rounded
• The sacrum is short and wide
• The wings of the ilium are horizontal
• The angle of the pubic area reaches 90-100 degrees

Men have the following characteristics:

• The pelvis is narrower, but high
• The wings of the ilium are located horizontally
• The sacrum is narrower and longer
• Pubic angle about 70-75 degrees
• Card Heart Login Form
• Pelvic cavity resembling a cone

The general structure includes:

• Greater pelvis (fifth lumbar vertebra, posterior superior axis of the garter, sacroiliac joint)
• Border line (sacrum, coccyx)
• Small pelvis (pubic symphysis, anterior superior part of the garter)

Anatomical skeleton of the neck, human skull: diagram, description

The neck and skull are complementary parts of the skeleton. After all, without each other they will not have fastenings, which means they will not be able to function. The skull combines several parts. They are divided into subcategories:

• Frontal
• Parietal
• Occipital
• Temporal
• Zygomatic
• Lacrimal
• Nasals
• Lattice
• Wedge-shaped

In addition, the lower and upper jaws are also related to the structure of the skull.

The neck is slightly different and includes:

• sternum
• Clavicles
• Thyroid cartilage
• Hyoid bone

They connect to the most important parts of the spine and help all the bones function without straining them due to their correct position.

What is the role of the human skeleton, what ensures mobility, what is referred to as the mechanical function of the bones of the skeleton?

In order to understand what the functions of the skeleton are, and why it is so important to maintain normal bones and posture, it is necessary to consider the skeleton from a logical point of view. After all, muscles, blood vessels and nerve endings cannot exist independently. To perform optimally, they need a frame on which they can be mounted.

The skeleton performs the function of protecting vital internal organs from displacement and injury. Not many people know, but our bones can withstand a load of 200 kg, which is comparable to steel. But if they were made of metal, human movements would become impossible, because the scale mark could reach 300 kg.

Therefore, mobility is ensured by the following factors:

• Presence of joints
• Lightness of bones
• Flexibility of muscles and tendons

In the process of development, we learn movements and plasticity. With regular exercise or any physical activity, you can achieve increased flexibility, speed up the growth process, and also form the correct musculoskeletal system.

The mechanical functions of the skeleton include:

• Movement
• Protection
• Depreciation
• And, of course, support

Among the biological ones there are:

• Participation in metabolism
• Hematopoiesis process

All these factors are possible due to the chemical composition and anatomical features of the skeleton. Because bones are made up of:

• Water (about 50%)
• Fat (16%)
• Collagen (13%)
• Chemical compounds (manganese, calcium, sulfate and others)

Bones of the human skeleton: how are they connected to each other?

The bones are fixed to each other using tendons and joints. After all, they help ensure the process of movement and protect the skeleton from premature wear and thinning.

However, not all bones are the same in attachment structure. Depending on the connective tissue, there are sedentary and mobile with the help of joints.

In total there are about 4 hundred ligaments in the body of an adult. The strongest of them helps the functioning of the tibia and can withstand loads of up to 2 centners. However, not only ligaments help provide mobility, but also the anatomical structure of the bones. They are made in such a way that they complement each other. But in the absence of a lubricant, the service life of the skeleton would not be so long. Since bones could quickly wear away during friction, the following are intended to protect against this destructive factor:

• Joints
• Cartilage
• Periarticular tissue
• Bursa
• Interarticular fluid

Ligaments connect the most important and largest bones in our body:

• tibial
• Tarsals
• Radiation
• Spatula
• Clavicles

What are the structural features of the human skeleton associated with upright walking?

With the development of evolution, the human body, including its skeleton, has undergone significant changes. These changes were aimed at preserving life and developing the human body in accordance with the requirements of weather conditions.

The most significant skeletal rearrangements include the following factors:

• The appearance of S-shaped curves (they provide balance support and also help concentrate the muscles and bones when jumping and running).
• The upper extremities became more mobile, including the phalanges of the fingers and hands (this helped develop fine motor skills, as well as perform complex tasks such as grabbing or holding someone).
• The size of the chest has become smaller (this is due to the fact that the human body no longer needs to consume as much oxygen. This happened because the person has become taller and, moving on the two lower limbs, receives more air).
• Changes in the structure of the skull (the work of the brain has reached high levels, therefore, with increased intellectual work, the cerebral region has taken precedence over the facial region).
• Expansion of the pelvis (the need to bear offspring, as well as to protect the internal organs of the pelvis).
• The lower limbs began to predominate in size over the upper ones (this is due to the need to search for food and move, because to overcome long distances and walking speed, the legs must be larger and stronger).

Thus, we see that under the influence of evolutionary processes, as well as the need for life support, the body is capable of rearranging itself into different positions, taking any position to preserve the life of a person as a biological individual.

What is the longest, most massive, strong and small bone in the human skeleton?

The adult human body contains a huge number of bones of different diameters, sizes and densities. We don’t even know about the existence of many of them, because they are not felt at all.

But there are a few of the most interesting bones that help support body functions, while being significantly different from others.

• The femur is considered to be the longest and most massive. Its length in the body of an adult reaches at least 45 cm or more. It also affects the ability to walk and balance, and the length of the legs. It is the femur that takes on most of a person’s weight when moving and can support up to 200 kg of weight.
• The smallest bone is the stirrup. It is located in the middle ear and weighs several grams and is 3-4 mm long. But the stirrup allows you to capture sound vibrations, therefore it is one of the most important parts in the structure of the organ of hearing.
• The only part of the skull that retains motor activity is the lower jaw. She is able to withstand a load of several hundred kilograms, thanks to her developed facial muscles and specific structure.
• The tibia can rightfully be considered the strongest bone in the human body. It is this bone that can withstand compression with a force of up to 4000 kg, which is a full 1000 more than the femur.

Which bones are tubular in the human skeleton?

Tubular or long bones are those that have a cylindrical or trihedral shape. Their length is greater than their width. Such bones grow due to the process of lengthening the body, and at the ends they have an epiphysis covered with hyaline cartilage. The following bones are called tubular:

• Femoral
• fibular
• tibial
• Shoulder
• Elbow
• Radiation

The short tubular bones are:

• Phalanx
• Metacarpals
• Metatarsals

The above-mentioned bones are not only the longest, but also the strongest, because they can withstand great pressure and weight. Their growth depends on the general condition of the body and the amount of growth hormone produced. Tubular bones make up almost 50% of the entire human skeleton.

Which bones in the human skeleton are connected movably by means of a joint and motionlessly?

For the normal functioning of bones, they need reliable protection and fixation. For this purpose, there is a joint that plays a connecting role. However, not all bones are fixed in a movable state in our body. We cannot move many of them at all, but in their absence our life and health would not be complete.

The fixed bones include the skull, since the bone is integral and does not need any connecting materials.

The sedentary ones, which are connected to the skeleton by cartilage, are:

• Thoracic ends of ribs
• Vertebrae

Movable bones that are fixed by joints include the following:

• Shoulder
• Elbow
• Radiocarpal
• Femoral
• Knee
• tibial
• fibular

What tissue is the basis of the bones of the skeleton, what substance gives the human skeleton strength, what is the composition of the bones?

Bone is a collection of several types of tissue in the human body that form the basis for supporting muscles, nerve fibers and internal organs. They form the skeleton, which serves as a frame for the body.

Bones are:

• Flat – formed from connective tissues: shoulder blades, hip bones
• Short – formed from spongy substance: carpus, tarsus
• Mixed - arise by combining several types of tissues: skull, chest
• Pneumatic - contain oxygen inside, and are also covered with a mucous membrane
• Sesamoids - located in tendons

The following tissues play an active role in the formation of various types of bones:

• Connective
• Spongy substance
• Cartilaginous
• Coarse fiber
• Fine fiber

They all form bones of varying strength and location, and some parts of the skeleton, for example, the skull, contain several types of tissue.

How long does it take for the human skeleton to grow?

On average, the process of growth and development of the human body lasts from the moment of intrauterine conception to 25 years. Under the influence of many factors, this phenomenon may slow down, or, conversely, not stop until a more mature age. Such influencing features include:

• Lifestyle
• Food quality
• Heredity
• Hormonal imbalances
• Illnesses during pregnancy
• Genetic diseases
• Substance use
• Alcoholism
• Lack of physical activity

Many bones are formed under the influence of the production of growth hormone, but in medicine there are cases where people continued to grow throughout 40-50 years of life or, on the contrary, stopped in childhood.

• This may be associated with a number of genetic diseases, as well as disorders of the adrenal glands, thyroid gland and other organs.
• It is also important to note that the height of people in different countries differs significantly. For example, in Peru, most women are no higher than 150 cm, and men are no more than 160 cm. While in Norway it is almost impossible to meet a person shorter than 170 cm. This significant difference is caused by evolutionary development. People had a need to obtain food, so their height and figure depended on the degree of activity and quality of food.

Here are some interesting facts about the development of the human body, in particular about growth.

If you are over 25 but want to grow taller, there are several methods that can help you increase your height at almost any age:

• Sports (regular physical exercise can correct your posture by adding a few centimeters).
• Pulling on the horizontal bar (under the influence of gravity, the vertebrae will take an anatomically correct shape and lengthen the overall height).
• Elizarov’s apparatus (suitable for the most radical citizens; the principle of operation is to increase the total length of the legs by 2-4 cm; before you decide, it is worth noting that the procedure is painful, since both legs of the patient are first broken, after which he is immobilized by the apparatus for several months, and then plaster). This method is only indicated when prescribed by a doctor.
• Yoga and swimming (with the development of flexibility of the spine, its length increases, and, consequently, height).

The main guarantee of a happy life is health. Before deciding on any surgical intervention, it is worth understanding the risks, as well as the consequences.

The skeleton is the natural support for our body. And taking care of it by giving up bad habits and proper nutrition will save you from joint diseases, fractures and other troubles in the future.

It is also worth remembering that in case of injury you must consult a doctor. After all, if the bone heals naturally, there is a risk of paralysis of the limb, and this in turn will lead to the need to further break the bone for its proper fusion.

Video: Human skeleton, its structure and meaning

What parts (divisions) does the limb of land-dwelling four-legged animals consist of?

What types of bone connections exist?

They consist of three sections: shoulder, forearm and hand (front) or thigh, lower leg and foot (back).

Joints, ligaments and cartilage.

1. The father put the child on his shoulders. What bones of the father does the baby rely on? What bones do anatomists call shoulders?

The bones of the arms are attached to the bones of the body by means of the shoulder blades and collarbones. They make up the skeleton of the shoulder girdles - the child leans on them. The shoulder is formed by one long humerus bone.

2. List the bones of the arm and leg and indicate how they differ.

The skeleton of the hand consists of three sections: the shoulder, forearm, and hand. The shoulder is formed by one long humerus bone. Two bones - the ulna and the radius - make up the forearm. They are located nearby. The hand is connected to the forearm. The small bones of the wrists of the metacarpus form a wide palm, and the phalanges form five flexible, movable fingers. The human thumb is opposed to the other four. This allows you to more securely hold various objects, such as a pencil, pen, hammer. The leg skeleton also consists of three sections: the thigh, lower leg and foot. The leg bones are very strong and durable. They can withstand the weight of the human body. The thigh is formed by the femur. This is the largest bone in our body. There are two bones in the lower leg - the tibia and fibula. The femur articulates with the bones of the lower leg using the knee joint. In the thickness of the tendon of the quadriceps muscle, which straightens the leg bent at the knee, there is a kneecap. The ankle joint also has great strength. The foot consists of three parts: the tarsus, metatarsus and phalanges. The largest bone of the tarsus is the calcaneus.

3. Rotate the hand so that the ulna and radius bones are parallel to each other.

If the palm is facing upward, the bones are parallel.

4. How to prove that the shoulder girdle increases range of motion?

You need to place your left hand on your right collarbone and begin to slowly raise your right hand. The clavicle of the right hand is motionless until the movement occurs due to the shoulder joint and until it reaches a horizontal position. Try to move your hand further, raising it above your head - the collarbone, and with it the scapula, will begin to move, since now the movement of the hand is due to the sternoclavicular joint. This joint also works when the arm moves forward and backward. To follow the movements of the scapula, you need to feel its lower corner. When the shoulder blade is motionless, this angle does not move. But as soon as she starts to move, he immediately changes position.

5. Why does the connection of the pelvic bones with the sacrum have low mobility, and why does the clavicle with the sternum have a movable joint?

In humans, the pelvic bones support the internal organs: stomach, intestines, excretory organs, etc. due to this they are inactive so as not to damage them, and also because the pelvis and sacrum are connected to each other by cartilage (semi-movable joint), and the sternum is connected to the clavicle joint (movable joint).

The human skeleton includes the spinal column, ribs and sternum - the bones of the body; scull; bones of the upper and lower extremities. The structural features of the skeleton and its individual bones were formed in connection with upright walking, the development of the brain and sensory organs, and various functions of the upper and lower extremities.

Rice. 1. Human skeleton. Front view: 1 - skull, 2 - spinal column, 3 - clavicle, 4 - rib, 5 - sternum, 6 - humerus, 7 - radius, 8 - ulna, 9 - wrist bones, 10 - metacarpal bones, 11 - phalanges of the fingers, 12 - ilium, 13 - sacrum, 14 - pubic bone, 15 - ischium, 16 - femur, 17 - patella, 18 - tibia, 19 - fibula, 20 - tarsal bones, 21 - metatarsal bones, 22 - phalanges of the toes.

The skeleton consists of bones connected to each other. It provides our body with support and shape, and also protects our internal organs. An adult human skeleton consists of approximately 200 bones. Each bone has a certain shape, size and occupies a certain position in the skeleton. Some of the bones are connected to each other by movable joints. They are driven by muscles attached to them.

Spine. The original structure that forms the main support of the skeleton is the spine. If it consisted of a solid bone core, then our movements would be constrained, lacking flexibility and would cause the same unpleasant sensations as riding in a cart without springs on a cobblestone road.

The elasticity of hundreds of ligaments, cartilage layers and bends makes the spine a strong and flexible support. Thanks to this structure of the spine, a person can bend, jump, somersault, and run. Very strong intervertebral ligaments allow the most complex movements and at the same time create reliable protection for the spinal cord. It is not subjected to any mechanical stretching or pressure during the most incredible bends of the spine. In an upright position, the spinal column forms a support for the head, organs of the thoracic and abdominal cavities. The spinal column has five sections: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal. Only the sacral part of the spinal column is immobile, the rest of its parts have varying degrees of mobility.

The bends of the spinal column correspond to the influence of the load on the skeletal axis. Therefore, the lower, more massive part becomes a support when moving; The upper one, with free movement, helps maintain balance. The spinal column could be called the vertebral spring.

The wavy curves of the spine ensure its elasticity. They appear with the development of the child’s motor abilities, when he begins to hold his head up, stand, and walk.

Rib cage. The rib cage is formed by the thoracic vertebrae, twelve pairs of ribs, and the flat chest bone, or sternum. The ribs are flat, curved bones. Their posterior ends are movably connected to the thoracic vertebrae, and the anterior ends of the ten upper ribs are connected to the sternum with the help of flexible cartilage. This ensures the mobility of the chest during breathing. The two lower pairs of ribs are shorter than the others and end freely. The rib cage protects the heart and lungs, as well as the liver and stomach.

It is interesting to note that ossification of the chest occurs later than other bones. By the age of twenty, the ossification of the ribs ends, and only by the age of thirty does the complete fusion of the parts of the sternum, consisting of the manubrium, the body of the sternum and the xiphoid process, occur.

The shape of the chest changes with age. In a newborn, it usually has the shape of a cone with the base facing down. Then, for the first three years, the circumference of the chest increases faster than the length of the body. Gradually, the chest from a cone-shaped one acquires a round shape characteristic of a person. Its diameter is greater than its length.

The development of the chest depends on a person’s lifestyle. Compare an athlete, swimmer, athlete with a person who does not play sports. It is easy to understand that the development of the chest and its mobility depend on the development of muscles. Therefore, teenagers twelve to fifteen years old who play sports have a chest circumference that is seven to eight centimeters larger than their peers who do not play sports.

Incorrect seating of students at their desks and compression of the chest can lead to its deformation, which impairs the development of the heart, large vessels and lungs.

Scull. The skull, formed by paired and unpaired bones, protects the brain and sensory organs from external influences and provides support for the initial parts of the digestive and respiratory systems. The skull is conventionally divided into cerebral and facial. The cranium is the seat of the brain. Inextricably linked with it is the facial skull, which serves as the bony basis of the face and the initial sections of the digestive and respiratory tract and forms containers for the sensory organs. The brain part of the skull includes: the frontal bone, two parietal bones, two temporal bones, two sphenoid bones, occipital bone. The facial part of the skull consists of: the upper jaw, two nasal bones, the zygomatic bone, the lower jaw.

Limbs. The skeleton of the limbs has undergone significant changes in the process of human evolution. The upper limbs became organs of labor, and the lower limbs, retaining the functions of support and movement, keep the human body in an upright position. Due to the fact that the limbs are attached to a reliable support, they have mobility in all directions and are able to withstand heavy physical loads.

Light bones - collarbones and shoulder blades, lying on the upper part of the chest, cover it like a belt. This is the support of the hands. The projections and ridges on the collarbone and scapula are where the muscles attach. The greater the strength of these muscles, the more developed the bone processes and irregularities. In an athlete or a loader, the longitudinal ridge of the scapula is more developed than in a watchmaker or accountant. The clavicle is a bridge between the bones of the torso and arms. The shoulder blade and collarbone create a reliable spring support for the arm.

The position of the arms can be judged by the position of the shoulder blades and collarbones. Anatomists have helped restore the broken arms of an ancient Greek statue of the Venus de Milo, determining their position based on the silhouettes of the shoulder blades and collarbones.

The pelvic bones are thick, wide and almost completely fused. In humans, the pelvis lives up to its name - it, like a bowl, supports the internal organs from below. This is one of the typical features of the human skeleton. The massiveness of the pelvis is proportional to the massiveness of the leg bones, which bear the main load when a person moves, so the human pelvic skeleton can withstand a large load.

Leg and arm. With a vertical posture, a person’s hands do not bear a constant load as a support; they acquire ease and variety of action, and freedom of movement. The hand can perform hundreds of thousands of different motor operations. The legs bear the entire weight of the body. They are massive and have extremely strong bones and ligaments.

The head of the shoulder has no restrictions in wide circular movements of the arms, for example when throwing a javelin. The head of the femur protrudes deeply into the socket of the pelvis, which limits movement. The ligaments of this joint are the strongest and hold the weight of the body on the hips.

Through exercise and training, greater freedom of movement of the legs is achieved, despite their massiveness. A convincing example of this can be ballet, gymnastics, and martial arts.

The tubular bones of the arms and legs have a huge margin of strength. It is interesting that the arrangement of the openwork crossbars of the Eiffel Tower corresponds to the structure of the spongy substance of the heads of the tubular bones, as if J. Eiffel designed the bones. The engineer used the same laws of construction that determine the structure of bone, giving it lightness and strength. This is the reason for the similarity between the metal structure and the living bone structure.

The elbow joint provides complex and varied movements of the arm in a person’s working life. Only he has the ability to rotate the forearm around its axis, with a characteristic movement of unwinding or twisting.

The knee joint guides the lower leg when walking, running, and jumping. The knee ligaments in humans determine the strength of the support when straightening the limb.

The hand begins with a group of carpal bones. These bones do not experience strong pressure and perform a similar function, so they are small, uniform, and difficult to distinguish. It is interesting to mention that the great anatomist Andrei Vesalius could, blindfolded, identify each carpal bone and say whether it belonged to the left or right hand.

The bones of the metacarpus are moderately mobile, they are arranged in the form of a fan and serve as a support for the fingers. Phalanges of fingers - 14. All fingers have three bones, except the thumb - it has two bones. A person's thumb is very mobile. It can become at right angles to everyone else. Its metacarpal bone is capable of opposing the rest of the bones of the hand.

The development of the thumb is associated with labor movements of the hand. The Indians call the thumb “mother”, the Javanese call it “elder brother”. In ancient times, captives' thumbs were cut off to degrade their human dignity and render them unfit to fight.

The brush makes the most subtle movements. In any working position of the hand, the hand retains complete freedom of movement.

The foot became more massive due to walking. The tarsal bones are very large and strong compared to the carpal bones. The largest of them are the talus and calcaneus. They can withstand significant body weight. In newborns, the movements of the foot and its big toe are similar to their movement in monkeys. Strengthening the supporting role of the foot when walking led to the formation of its arch. When walking or standing, you can easily feel how the entire space between these points “hangs in the air.”

The vault, as is known in mechanics, can withstand greater pressure than the platform. The arch of the foot ensures elasticity of gait and eliminates pressure on nerves and blood vessels. Its formation in the history of the origin of man is associated with upright walking and is a distinctive feature of man acquired in the process of his historical development.