Diagnostics

The bones of the skull, their structure. Head skeleton (skull). Joints of the bones of the skull

Skull (cranium) only partly refers to the musculoskeletal system. It primarily serves as a receptacle for the brain and associated with the latter; in addition, it surrounds the initial part of the digestive and respiratory tracts that open outwards. Accordingly, the skull in all vertebrates is divided into two parts: the brain skull, neurocranium and the visceral skull, cranium viscerale.

In the brain skull, a vault, calvaria, and a base, basis are distinguished.

Skull development. The skull, like the skeleton of the head, is conditioned in its development by the above-mentioned organs of animal and plant life. The brain skull develops in connection with the brain and sense organs. Animals without brains do not have cerebral skull. In chordates (lancelet), in which the brain is in its infancy, it is surrounded by a connective tissue membrane (membranous skull).

With the development of the brain in fish, a protective box is formed around the latter, which in cartilaginous fish (sharks) acquires cartilaginous tissue (cartilaginous skull), and in bony fish - bone tissue (the beginning of the formation of a bone skull). With the release of animals from the water to land (amphibians), there is a further replacement of cartilage tissue with bone, which is necessary for protection, support and movement in conditions of terrestrial existence. In other classes of vertebrates, connective and cartilaginous tissues are almost completely replaced by bone, and a bony skull is formed, which is more durable. The development of individual skull bones is also determined by the same factors. This explains the relatively simple structure of the bones of the cranial vault (for example, the parietal) and very complex structure bones of the base, for example, the temporal, which is involved in all the functions of the skull and is a receptacle for the organs of hearing and gravity.

In terrestrial animals, the number of bones decreases, but their structure becomes more complicated, because a number of bones are the product of fusion of previously independent bone formations.

In mammals, the brain skull and visceral are closely fused. In humans, due to the greatest development of the brain and sensory organs, the neurocranium reaches a significant size and prevails over the visceral skull.

The visceral skull develops from the material of paired branchial arches enclosed in the lateral walls of the head section of the primary intestine. In lower vertebrates living in water, gill arches lie metamerically between gill slits through which water passes to the gills, which are aquatic respiratory organs. In the I and II gill arches, the dorsal and ventral parts are distinguished. From the dorsal part of the I arc develops (partially) upper jaw, and the ventral part of the I arch takes part in the development mandible. Therefore, in the first arc, processus maxillaris and processus mandibularis are distinguished.

In this way, driving forces The evolution of the head skeleton is the transition from aquatic to terrestrial life (amphibians), adaptation to the conditions of life on land (other classes of vertebrates, especially mammals) and highest development the brain and its tools - the sense organs, as well as the appearance of speech (man). Reflecting this line of evolution, the human skull in ontogenesis goes through 3 stages of development:

connective tissue,
cartilage and
bone.

The transition of the second stage to the third, i.e. the formation secondary bones on the basis of cartilage, lasts throughout a person's life. Even in an adult, remnants of cartilaginous tissue between the bones are preserved in the form of their cartilaginous joints (synchondrosis). The cranial vault, which serves only to protect the brain, develops directly from the membranous skull, bypassing the cartilage stage. The transition of connective tissue to bone here also takes place throughout a person's life. Remains of non-ossified connective tissue are preserved between the bones of the skull in the form of fontanelles in newborns and sutures in children and adults.

Brain skull representing continuation spinal column, develops from sclerotomes of the head somites, which are laid in the number of 3-4 pairs in the occipital region around the anterior end of the chorda dorsalis. The mesenchyme of sclerotomes, surrounding the blisters of the brain and developing sensory organs, forms a cartilaginous capsule, cranium primordiale (original), which, unlike the spinal column, remains unsegmented. The chord penetrates the skull to the pituitary gland, hypophysis, as a result of which the skull is divided in relation to the chord into chordal and prechordal parts. In the prechordal part, in front of the pituitary gland, another pair of cartilages, or cranial crossbars, trabeculae cranii, is laid, which are in connection with the cartilaginous nasal capsule lying in front, enveloping the organ of smell. On the sides of the notochord are cartilaginous plates parachordalia. Subsequently, trabeculae cranii fuse with parachordalia into one cartilaginous plate, and parachordalia - with cartilaginous auditory capsules that envelop the rudiments of the organ of hearing. Between the nasal and auditory capsules on each side of the skull, a recess is obtained for the organ of vision.

Reflecting the fusion during evolution into larger formations, the bones of the base of the skull arise from separate bone formations (formerly independent), which fuse together and form mixed bones. The cartilages of the gill arches are also transformed: the upper part (of the first gill or jaw arch) is involved in the formation of the upper jaw. On the ventral cartilage of the same arch, the lower jaw is formed, which is attached to the temporal bone through the temporomandibular joint. The remaining parts of the cartilage of the gill arch turn into auditory ossicles: hammer and anvil.

Upper section the second branchial arch (hyoid) goes to the formation of the third auditory ossicle - the stirrup. All three auditory ossicles are not related to the bones of the face and are placed in tympanic cavity, developing from the first gill pocket and making up the middle ear. The rest of the hyoid arch goes to the construction of the hyoid bone (small horns and part of the body) and the styloid processes of the temporal bone together with lig. stylohyoideum.

The third branchial arch gives rise to the rest of the body of the hyoid bone and its greater horns. From the rest of the gill arches, cartilages of the larynx originate, which are not related to the skeleton.

Thus, in humans, the bones of the skull can be divided into 3 groups according to their development.

The bones that form brain capsule:

developing on the basis of connective tissue - bones of the arch: parietal, frontal, upper part of the scales occipital bone, scales and tympanic part of the temporal bone;

developing on the basis of cartilage - base bones: sphenoid (with the exception of the medial plate of the pterygoid process), the lower part of the scales, the basilar and lateral parts of the occipital bone, the petrous part of the temporal bone.

Bones that develop in connection with the nasal capsule:

Bones that develop from the gill arches:

The bones developed from the brain capsule make up the brain skull, and the bones of the other two sections, with the exception of the ethmoid, form the bones of the face. In connection with the strong development of the brain, the vault of the skull, which rises above the rest, is very convex and rounded in humans. In this feature, the human skull sharply differs from the skulls not only of lower mammals, but also of anthropoid apes, a clear proof of which can be the capacity of the cranial cavity. Its volume in humans is about 1500 cm3, in great apes it reaches only 400-500 cm3. The fossil ape-man (Pithecanthropus) has a skull capacity of about 900 cm3.

Skull (cranium) only partly refers to the musculoskeletal system. It primarily serves as a receptacle for the brain and associated sensory organs; in addition, it surrounds the initial part of the digestive and respiratory tracts that open outwards. Accordingly, the skull of all vertebrates is divided into two parts: cerebral skull, neurocranium and visceral skull, cranium viscerale. In the brain skull distinguish vault, calvaria, and basis.

The composition of the brain skull in humans includes: unpaired occipital, sphenoid, frontal and ethmoid bones and paired temporal and parietal bones. Part visceral skull includes paired - upper jaw, lower turbinate, palatine, zygomatic, nasal, lacrimal bones and unpaired - vomer, lower jaw and hyoid bones.

Skull development. The skull, like the skeleton of the head, is conditioned in its development by the above-mentioned organs of animal and plant life.

brain skull develops in connection with the brain and sense organs. Animals that do not have a brain do not have a cerebral skull. In chordates (lancelet), in which the brain is in its infancy, it is surrounded by a connective tissue membrane (membranous skull).

With the release of animals from the water to land (amphibians), there is a further replacement of cartilage tissue with bone, which is necessary for protection, support and movement in conditions of terrestrial existence.

In other classes of vertebrates, connective and cartilaginous tissues are almost completely replaced by bone, and a bony skull is formed, which is more durable. The development of individual skull bones is also determined by the same factors. This explains the relatively simple structure of the bones of the cranial vault (for example, the parietal) and the very complex structure of the bones of the base, for example the temporal, which is involved in all the functions of the skull and is a receptacle for the organs of hearing and gravity. In terrestrial animals, the number of bones decreases, but their structure becomes more complicated, because a number of bones are the product of the fusion of previously independent bone formations.

Visceral skull develops from the material of paired gill arches enclosed in the side walls of the head section of the primary intestine. In lower aquatic vertebrates, the gill arches lie metamerically between the gill slits through which water passes to the gills, which are aquatic respiratory organs.

AT I and II gill arches distinguish dorsal and ventral parts. From the dorsal part of the first arch develops (partially) the upper jaw, and the ventral part of the first arch takes part in the development of the lower jaw. Therefore, in the first arc, processus maxillaris and processus mandibularis are distinguished.

With the release of animals from the water to land, the lungs gradually develop, that is, the respiratory organs of the air type, and the gills lose their significance. In this regard, terrestrial vertebrates and humans have gill pockets only in the embryonic period, and the material of the gill arches is used to build facial bones. Thus, the driving forces of the evolution of the head skeleton are the transition from aquatic to terrestrial life (amphibians), adaptation to the conditions of life on land (other classes of vertebrates, especially mammals) and the highest development of the brain and its tools - the sense organs, as well as the appearance of speech (man ).

Reflecting this line of evolution, the human skull in ontogenesis goes through 3 stages of development: 1) connective tissue, 2) cartilage, and 3) bone. The transition from the second stage to the third, i.e., the formation of secondary bones on the basis of cartilage, lasts throughout a person's life. Even in an adult, remnants of cartilaginous tissue between the bones are preserved in the form of their cartilaginous joints (synchondrosis). The cranial vault, which serves only to protect the brain, develops directly from the membranous skull, bypassing the cartilage stage. The transition of connective tissue to bone here also takes place throughout a person's life. Remains of non-ossified connective tissue are preserved between the bones of the skull in the form of fontanelles in newborns and sutures in children and adults.

brain skull, representing the continuation of the spinal column, develops from the sclerotomes of the head somites, which are laid in the number of 3-4 pairs in the occipital region around the anterior end of the chorda dorsalis.

Mesenchyme of sclerotomes, surrounding the blisters of the brain and developing sensory organs, forms a cartilaginous capsule, cranium primordiale (original), which, unlike the spinal column, remains unsegmented. The chord penetrates the skull to the pituitary gland, hypophysis, as a result of which the skull is divided in relation to the chord into chordal and prechordal parts. In the prechordal part, in front of the pituitary gland, another pair of cartilages, or cranial crossbars, trabeculae cranii, is laid, which are in connection with the cartilaginous nasal capsule lying in front, enveloping the organ of smell. On the sides of the notochord are cartilaginous plates parachordalia. Subsequently, trabeculae cranii fuse with parachordalia into one cartilaginous plate, and parachordalia - with cartilaginous auditory capsules that envelop the rudiments of the organ of hearing (Fig. 25). Between the nasal and auditory capsules on each side of the skull, a recess is obtained for the organ of vision.

The cartilages of the gill arches are also transformed: the upper part (of the first gill or jaw arch) is involved in the formation of the upper jaw. On the ventral cartilage of the same arch, the lower jaw is formed, which is attached to the temporal bone through the temporomandibular joint.

Other parts gill arch cartilage become auditory ossicles: malleus and anvil. The upper part of the second branchial arch (hyoid) goes to the formation of the third auditory bone - the stirrup. All three auditory ossicles are not related to the bones of the face and are placed in the tympanic cavity, which develops from the first gill pocket and makes up the middle ear (see "Organ of hearing"). The rest of the hyoid arch goes to the construction of the hyoid bone (small horns and part of the body) and the styloid processes of the temporal bone together with lig. stylohyoideum.

Third gill arch gives the rest of the body of the hyoid bone and its large horns. From the rest of the gill arches, cartilages of the larynx originate, which are not related to the skeleton.

In this way, human skull bones according to their development can be divided into 3 troupes.

1. Bones that form the brain capsule:
a) developing on the basis of connective tissue - bones of the arch: parietal, frontal, upper part of the scales of the occipital bone, scales and tympanic part of the temporal bone;
b) developing on the basis of cartilage - base bones: sphenoid (with the exception of the medial plate of the pterygoid process), the lower part of the scale, the basilar and lateral parts of the occipital bone, the petrous part of the temporal bone.

2. Bones developing in connection with the nasal capsule:
a) on the basis of connective tissue - lacrimal, nasal, vomer;
b) on the basis of cartilage - the ethmoid and inferior nasal concha.

3. Bones that develop from gill arches:
a) immobile - upper jaw, palatine bone, cheekbone;
b) mobile - the lower jaw, hyoid bone and auditory ossicles.

Bones, developed from the brain capsule, make up the brain skull, and the bones of the other two sections, with the exception of the ethmoid, form the bones of the face.

Due to strong development brain the vault of the skull, which rises above the rest, is very convex and rounded in humans. In this feature, the human skull sharply differs from the skulls not only of lower mammals, but also of anthropoid apes, a clear proof of which can be the capacity of the cranial cavity. Its volume in humans is about 1500 cm3, in anthropoid apes it reaches only 400-500 cm3. The fossil ape-man (Pithecanthropus) has a skull capacity of about 900 cm3.

Educational video on embryogenesis, ontogenesis of the skull - its growth and development

The skull has a facial and brain sections. The border lies between the posterior and orbital margins. The bones of the skull are flat. They are connected by sutures, which enable the growth of all cranial bones. After their ossification, growth stops.

The facial region of the skull consists of the nasal and oral cavity. Unpaired include:

ethmoid bone;
coulter;
hyoid bone.

From the pair stand out:

upper jaw;
nasal bone;
incisive;
lacrimal;
zygomatic;
pterygoid;
palatine bone;
lower jaw;
nasal conchas.

Let us consider in more detail all the bones of the facial skull.

upper jaw

This bone is paired. It consists of a body and four processes. Enters the body maxillary sinus, which communicates with a wide cleft and the nasal cavity. The body consists of the anterior, infratemporal, orbital and nasal surfaces.

In front, the surface has a concave shape. On its border is the infraorbital margin, below which is the infraorbital foramen with nerves and vessels. Under it is a depression in the form of a canine fossa. On the medial edge, the nasal notch is well defined, in which the anterior opening of the nasal cavity is noticeable. The lower edge protrudes and creates the nasal spine.

From the orbital surface, the inferior orbital wall is created, which has a triangular smooth concave shape. In the area of the medial edge, it borders on the lacrimal bone, orbital plate and process. In the back, the border runs along the bottom orbital fissure where the infraorbital sulcus begins. In front, it transforms into the infraorbital canal.

The infratemporal surface is created from the pterygopalatine and in front it is delimited by the zygomatic process. The tubercle of the jaw clearly stands out on it, from where the alveolar openings originate, passing into the corresponding canals. Vessels and nerves directed to the molars function through these channels.

The surface of the nose is formed by a complex relief. It unites with the bone of the palate and the inferior concha of the nose, passing into upper part palatine process. On the surface, a maxillary cleft in the shape of a triangle is clearly visible. Ahead, a vertical groove is well defined, which is connected to the lower nasal concha and the lacrimal bone.

Further, the bones of the facial skull continue with the frontal process extending from the body of the upper jaw at the point of convergence of the nasal, anterior and orbital surfaces. At one end, the process reaches the nasal part. On the lateral surface, the lacrimal crest lies, passing into the infraorbital region, delimiting the lacrimal groove. On the medial surface of the process is a cribriform ridge that connects with

The zygomatic process, emerging from the jaw, also converges with the zygomatic bone.

The alveolar process is a thick plate, concave on one side and convex on the other, emerging from the jaw. Its lower edge is an alveolar arch with indentations (dental holes) for 8 upper teeth. The separation of the alveoli is provided by the presence of interalveolar septa. Outside, elevations stand out, especially pronounced in the region of the front teeth.

The process of the palate is a horizontal plate. It originates from the nasal surface, from where it passes into alveolar ridge. Its surface is smooth from above and forms the lower wall of the nasal cavity. The medial margin bears a raised nasal ridge, which creates a palatine process, uniting with the vomeric margin.

Its lower surface is rough, and palatine grooves stand out on the back. The medial edge is connected to the same process on the other side, whereby a hard palate is created. The anterior margin contains an opening into the incisive canal, while the posterior margin is fused with the palatine bone.

palatine bone

The bones of the facial skull are paired and unpaired. The palatine bone is paired. It includes perpendicular and horizontal plates.

The horizontal plate has four corners. Together with the palatine processes, it makes up the bony palate. The horizontal plate below has a rough surface. The nasal surface, on the other hand, is smooth. Along it and on the process of the upper jaw is the nasal crest, which passes into the nasal bone.

The perpendicular plate enters the wall of the nasal cavity. On its lateral surface there is a large furrow of the palate. She, together with the furrows of the upper jaw and the process of the sphenoid bone, creates a large channel of the sky. There is a hole at the end. On the medial surface of the plate there is a pair of horizontal ridges: one is ethmoid, and the other is conchal.

The orbital, pyramidal and sphenoid processes. The first passes laterally and forward, the second moves down, back and laterally at the junction of the plates, and the third passes back and medially, connecting to the sphenoid bone.

Coulter

Opener Presents unpaired bones facial skull. This is a trapezoidal plate that is located in the nasal cavity and creates a septum. The upper posterior margin is thicker than the other parts. It is divided in two, and the beak and crest of the sphenoid bone pass in the formed groove. The posterior edge separates the choanae, the lower one is connected by the crests of the nose with the palatine bone, and the anterior one is in one part with the nasal septum, and in the other with the plate ethmoid bone.

nasal bone

The paired bones of the facial skull are represented by the nasal bone, which creates the bony dorsum. It is a thin plate with four corners, the upper edge of which is thicker and narrower than the lower one. It is connected to the frontal bone, the lateral one - to the frontal process, and the lower one, together with the base of the frontal process, is the boundary of the aperture of the nasal cavity. The anterior surface of the bone has a smooth surface, while the posterior surface is concave, with a ethmoid groove.

lacrimal bone

These bones of the human facial skull are also paired. They are represented by a rather fragile plate in the form of a quadrangle. With it, the anterior wall of the orbit is formed. Ahead, it is united with the frontal process, above - with the edge frontal bone, and behind - with a plate of the ethmoid bone, the beginning of which covers its medial surface. On the lateral surface is a lacrimal crest with a lacrimal hook at the end. And ahead is the tear trough.

Cheekbone

Another paired bone that combines the bones of the brain and facial skull. It is represented by the orbital, temporal and lateral surfaces, as well as the frontal and temporal processes.

The lateral surface has irregular shape quadrangle, the orbital forms the wall of the orbit and the infraorbital margin, and the temporal forms part of the infratemporal fossa.

The frontal process goes up, and the temporal process goes down. The latter with the zygomatic process forms the zygomatic arch. The bone with the upper jaw is attached to a jagged platform.

Lower jaw

It is the only movable cranial bone. It is unpaired and consists of horizontal body, as well as two vertical branches.

The body is curved in the form of a horseshoe and has both internal and outer surface. Its lower edge is thickened and rounded, and the upper one creates an alveolar part with dental alveoli, which are separated from each other by partitions.

In the anterior part there is a chin protrusion, expanding and turning into a chin tubercle. Behind there is a chin opening, behind which an oblique line proceeds.

In the middle of the inner part, the mental spine stands out, on the sides of which there is an oblong 2-abdominal fossa. At the upper edge, not far from the dental alveoli, is the hyoid fossa, under which a weak maxillary-hyoid line originates. And under the line is the submandibular fossa.

The branch of the jaw is a steam room, it has an anterior and posterior edges, an outer and an inner surface. Chewing tuberosity is found on the outer part, and pterygoid tuberosity is found on the inner part.

The branch ends with anterior and posterior processes, which go up. Between them there is a notch of the lower jaw. The anterior process is coronal, pointed at the top. The buccal ridge is directed from its base to the molar. And the posterior process, condylar, ends with a head, which continues with the neck of the lower jaw.

Hyoid bone

The bones of the facial part of the human skull end with the hyoid bone, which is located on the neck between the larynx and the lower jaw. It includes the body and two processes in the form of large and small horns. The body of the bone is curved, with the anterior part convex and the posterior concave. Large horns go to the sides, and small ones go up, laterally and back. The hyoid bone is suspended from the cranial bones by means of muscles and ligaments. It is connected to the larynx.

Conclusion

When the bones of the facial skull are studied, anatomy attracts attention primarily with a complex relief on the outer and inner surfaces, which is explained by the fact that the brain is located here, ganglions and sense organs.

The bones are immovable (except for the lower jaw). They are securely fixed due to various sutures in the skull and face, as well as with the help of cartilaginous joints at the cranial base.

In this article, you can find out what the areas of the head are, how this part of the body is arranged and why did it even appear during evolution? The article begins with the simplest - basic information about the organization.

What is meant by the skeleton of the head or, more simply, the skull? This is a collection of many bones, paired or not, spongy or mixed. The skull contains only two large sections:

cerebral (the cavity in which the brain is located);
facial (this is where some systems originate, such as respiratory or digestive; in addition, here you can find large quantity sense organs).

As for the brain department, it is worth mentioning that this area is also divided into two:

its foundation.

Evolution

It is important to know that vertebrates did not always have such a large head. Let's dive a little into the past. This part of the body appeared in ancient vertebrates during the fusion of the first three segments of the spine. Prior to this phenomenon, the same segmentation was observed. Each vertebra had its own pair of the first vertebra responsible for smell, the second for vision, and the third for hearing. Over time, the load on these nerves increased, it was necessary to process more and more information, which led to a thickening of these segments responsible for these sensory organs. So they merged into the brain, and the union of the vertebrae formed a brain capsule (like a skull). Note that the head modern man is still divided into segments from which it was formed.

What is the average head size for an adult? Length - 17-22 cm, width - 14-16 cm, height - 12-16 cm, circumference - 54-60 cm. The length of the head, as a rule, is greater than the width, so it is not round, but elliptical. It is also very interesting that the numbers (length, width and height) are not constant, they either increase or decrease. And it all depends on the location of the person.

Brain

Before moving on to studying the areas of the head, it is worth saying that the head is not just considered the most important part of the body. After all, this is where:

brain;
organs of vision;
organs of hearing;
olfactory organs;
organs of taste;
nasopharynx;
language;
chewing apparatus.

Now we will learn a little more about the brain. What is it and how is it arranged? This body is made up of nerve fibers. Neurons (these are brain cells) are able to control the work of the entire human body by producing electrical impulse. In total, twelve pairs of nerves can be observed that control the functioning of organs. Signals from the brain travel to their destination through the spinal cord.

The brain is constantly in the fluid, which prevents it from contacting the cranium when the head moves. In general, our brain has quite good protection:

hard connective tissue;
soft connective tissue;
choroid;
liquor.

The fluid in which our brain "floats" is called cerebrospinal fluid. The pressure of this fluid on the organ is considered to be intracranial pressure.

It is also important that the work of the brain and organs located on the head requires large energy costs. For this reason, we can observe intense blood circulation in this area. It:

Nutrition: carotid and vertebral arteries.
Outflow: internal and external jugular veins.

So at rest, the head consumes about fifteen percent of the total blood volume of the body.

Skull and muscles

The skeleton of the head (skull) has a no less complex structure. Its main function is to protect the brain from mechanical damage and other external influences.

The entire human cranium is made up of 23 bones. They are all motionless except for one - the lower jaw. As mentioned earlier, there are two divisions here:

cerebral;
facial.

Bones related to the facial region (there are 15 in total) can be:

paired - upper jaw, palatine bone, lacrimal, lower nasal concha;
unpaired - lower jaw, vomer, hyoid.

Paired bones of the brain:

parietal;
temporal.

Unpaired:

occipital;
frontal;
wedge-shaped;
lattice.

The entire brain section in total consists of eight bones.

The cervical region, to which the skull is attached, allows the head to move. Movement is provided by the muscles of the neck. But on the head itself there are also muscle fibers, which are responsible for facial expressions, one exception is the masticatory muscles, which are considered the strongest in this area.

Head areas

The whole head is conditionally divided into 13 regions. There are also distinguished paired and unpaired. And so, six of them are classified as unpaired regions.

The frontal region of the head (it is the focus of attention in the next section of the article).
Parietal (detailed information will be presented to your attention later).
Occipital (discussed in more detail in a separate section of the article).
Nasal, which fully corresponds to the contour of our nose.
Oral, also corresponds to the contour of the mouth.
The chin, which is separated from the mouth by the chin-labial groove.

Now we turn to the enumeration of the seven paired regions. These include:

The buccal region separated from the nose and mouth by the nasolabial furrow.
Parotid-chewing (contours parotid gland and muscles responsible for the chewing reflex).
The temporal region of the head (the contours of the scales of the temporal bone, located below the parietal region).
Orbital (contour of the eye sockets).
Infraorbital (below the eye sockets).
Zygomatic (cheekbone contour).
Mastoid (this bone can be found behind auricle, which, as it were, covers it).

frontal area

Now let's move on to detailed consideration frontal area heads. Borders anterior section- nasolabial suture, supraorbital edges, posterior - parietal region, sides - Temple area. This department captures even hairy part heads.

As for the blood supply, it is carried out through the following arteries:

suprablock;
supraorbital.

They depart from ophthalmic artery, which is a branch of the sleepy. In this area, there is a well-developed venous network. All vessels of this network form the following veins:

suprablock;
supraorbital.

The latter, in turn, partially flow into the angular, and then into the facial vein. And the other part goes into the eye.

Now briefly about the innervation in the frontal region. These nerves are branches of the eye and have names:

suprablock;
supraorbital.

As it is not difficult to guess, they pass together with the vessels of the same name. motor nerves- branches facial nerve having a name - temporal.

parietal region

This area limited by the contours of the bones of the crown. You can imagine it if you draw projection lines:

before - coronal seam;
back - lambdoid seam;
sides - temporal lines.

Blood supply is promoted arterial vessels, which are processes of the parietal branches temporal artery. Outflow - parietal branch of the temporal vein.

Innervation:

before - terminal branches of the supraorbital nerve and frontal;
flanks - ear-vesical nerve;
back - occipital nerve.

Occipital region

The occipital region of the head is located below the parietal, and is limited back region neck. So the borders:

top and sides - labd-shaped seam;
bottom - the line between the tops of the mastoid processes.

Arteries contribute to the blood supply:

occipital;
back ear.

Innervation is carried out the following types nerves:

suboccipital (motor);
large occipital (sensitive);
small occipital (sensitive).

Nervous system

The article has already briefly described some areas of the human head. From the table you will learn more detailed information. In total, the head contains 12 pairs of nerves that are responsible for sensations, the release of tears and saliva, the innervation of the muscles of the head, and so on.

Nerve	Brief explanation
Olfactory	It has an effect on the nasal mucosa.
Visual	It is represented by a million (approximately) tiny nerve fibers, which are the axons of neurons in the retina.
Oculomotor	Acts as muscles that move the eyeball.
Blocky	Deals with nerves of the oblique muscle of the eye.
ternary	This is the most important nerve located on our head. It performs the innervation: skin; eyeball; conjunctiva; dura mater; nasal mucosa; oral mucosa; a certain area of the language; teeth; gums
diverting	Innervation of the rectus eye muscle.
Facial	Innervation: all facial muscles; posterior belly of the digastric muscle; stylohyoid muscle.
vestibulocochlear	Is a conductor between receptors inner ear and the brain.
Glossopharyngeal	Engaged in innervation: throat muscles; pharyngeal mucosa; tonsils; auditory tube; taste fibers of the tongue; parasympathetic fibers of the parotid gland.
Wandering	It has the largest area of innervation. Engaged in innervation: sensitivity of the palate and pharynx; motor ability palate and throat; larynx; taste buds located on the root of the tongue; ear skin.
Additional	Motor innervation of the pharynx, larynx, sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles.
Sublingual	Thanks to the presence given nerve we can wiggle our tongues.

Circulatory system

Studying the anatomy of the head, one cannot ignore such a complex, but very important topic as circulatory system. It is she who provides blood circulation to the head, thanks to which a person can live (eat, breathe, drink, communicate, and so on).

For the work of our head, or rather for the brain, a lot of energy is needed, which requires a constant flow of blood. It has already been said that even at rest, our brain consumes fifteen percent of the total volume of blood and twenty-five percent of the oxygen that we receive when breathing.

What arteries supply our brain? Mainly:

vertebrates;
sleepy.

Its outflow from the bones of the cranium, muscles, brain, and so on should also occur. This is due to the presence of veins:

internal jugular;
external jugular.

arteries

As already mentioned, the vertebral and carotid arteries, which are presented in the form of pairs, are engaged in the nutrition of the human head. The carotid artery is the basis this process. It is divided into 2 branches:

external (enriches the outer part of the head);
internal (passes into the cranial cavity itself and branches, providing blood flow to the eyes and other parts of the brain).

Blood flow to the muscles is carried out externally and internally. carotid artery. About 30% of brain nutrition is carried out vertebral arteries. Basilar provides work:

cranial nerves;
inner ear;
medulla oblongata;
cervical region spinal cord;
cerebellum.

The blood supply to the brain varies depending on the individual's condition. Mental or psychophysiological overloads increase this indicator by 50%.

Vienna

Considering the anatomy of the human head, it is hard to pass by a very important topic - the venous structure of this part of the body. Let's start with what is venous sinuses. it large veins that collect blood from following parts:

skull bones;
head muscles;
meninges;
brain;
eyeballs;
inner ear.

You can also find another name for them, namely, venous collectors, which are located between the sheets of the brain membrane. Leaving the cranium, they pass into jugular vein running next to the carotid artery. You can also distinguish the external jugular vein, which is slightly smaller and located in subcutaneous tissue. This is where blood is collected from:

eye;
nose
chin.

Generally speaking, everything that is listed above is called superficial formations of the head and face.

muscles

In a nutshell, all the muscles of our head can be divided into several groups:

chewing;
mimic;
vault of the skull;
sense organs;
upper digestive system.

You can guess about the functions performed by their names. For example, chewing makes the process of chewing food possible, but mimics are responsible for human facial expressions, and so on.

It is very important to know that absolutely all muscles, regardless of their main purpose, are involved in speech.

Scull

The entire skull, formed by the bones of the head, is divided into two sections:

facial;
cerebral.

The first is located between the eye sockets and the chin, and forms the initial sections of some body systems (more specifically, the digestive and respiratory systems). In addition, the facial section is the site of attachment of some muscle groups:

chewing;
mimic.

What's in this section:

eye sockets;
nasal cavity;
oral cavity;
drum cavity.

Particular attention should be paid to the zygomatic bone, which is the place of attachment of the bulk of the muscles of the face. It is located below the orbit and performs important function- protection of the eye and nose from mechanical damage.

It is important to note the jaw, represented by the upper paired bone and the lower unpaired. The lower jaw is the only movable bone to which strong masticatory muscles are attached.

Let's pay attention to the intermaxillary region, which is also called the deep part of the face. Restrictions:

the outer part is the branch of the lower jaw;
inner part- tubercle of the upper jaw;
top - bottom surface big wing sphenoid bone.

Briefly about the brain department, which is designed to protect the brain and other structures that are associated with it. The department is formed by 8 bones, the main ones are:

occipital;
parietal;
frontal;
temporal.

It is important to note that the skull is not solid, it has sinuses and openings that allow nerves and blood vessels to enter the brain. At the base of the skull of the human head is the foramen magnum, which connects the cranial cavity and the spinal canal.

Scull formed by paired and unpaired bones, firmly connected with sutures. It serves as a receptacle and support for vital organs.

In the cavities formed by the bones of the skull, the brain is located, as well as the organs of vision, hearing, balance, smell, taste, which are the most important sense organs. Through numerous holes in the bones of the base of the skull, cranial nerves, and the arteries that feed them pass to the brain and other organs.

The skull consists of two sections: brain and facial. The area in which the brain is located is called brain skull. The second section, which forms the bone base of the face, the initial parts of the digestive and respiratory systems, is called facial skull(Fig. 22, 23).

Rice. 22. The structure of the human skull (side view):

1 - parietal bone, 2 - coronal suture, 3 - frontal bone, 4 - sphenoid bone, 5 - ethmoid bone, 6 - lacrimal bone, 7 - nasal bone, 8 - temporal fossa, 9 - anterior nasal bone, 10 - upper jaw , 11 - lower jaw, 12 - zygomatic bone, 13 - zygomatic arch, 14 - styloid process, 15 - condylar process, 16 - mastoid process, 17 - external auditory meatus, 18 - lamdoid suture, 19 - occipital bone, 20 - temporal lines, 21 - temporal bone

Rice. 23. The structure of the human skull (front view):

1 - coronal suture, 2 - parietal bone, 3 - orbital part of the frontal bone, 4 - sphenoid bone, 5 - zygomatic bone, 6 - inferior nasal concha, 7 - upper jaw, 8 - chin protrusion of the lower jaw, 9 - nasal cavity, 10 - vomer, 11 - ethmoid bone, 12 - upper jaw, 13 - lower orbital fissure, 14 - lacrimal bone, 15 - ethmoid bone, 16 - superior orbital fissure, 17 - temporal bone, 18 - zygomatic process of the frontal bone, 19 - optic canal, 20 - nasal bone, 21 - scales of the frontal bone.

The cerebral region of the skull of adults is formed by the frontal, sphenoid, occipital, parietal, temporal and ethmoid bones.

frontal bone unpaired in adults. It forms the anterior part of the brain skull and the upper wall of the orbits. The following parts are distinguished in it: frontal scales, orbital and nasal parts. In the thickness of the bone there is a frontal sinus that communicates with the nasal cavity.

Sphenoid bone located in the center of the base of the skull. It has a complex shape and consists of a body from which three pairs of processes extend: large wings, small wings and pterygoid processes. In the body of the bone there is a sinus (sphenoid), which also communicates with the nasal cavity.

Occipital bone forms the posterior-lower part of the brain skull. It distinguishes the main part, lateral masses and occipital scales. All these parts surround a large occipital foramen, through which the brain is connected to the spinal cord.

Parietal bone steam room, forms the upper lateral part of the cranial vault. It is a quadrangular plate, convex outward and concave from the inside.

Ethmoid bone unpaired, participates in the formation of the walls of the orbits and nasal cavity. The following parts are distinguished in it: a horizontally located lattice plate with numerous small holes; a perpendicular plate involved in the division of the nasal cavity into the right and left halves; ethmoid labyrinths with upper and middle turbinates forming the side walls of the nasal cavity.

Temporal bone steam room. It is involved in the formation of a joint with the lower jaw. In the temporal bone, a pyramid, tympanic and squamous parts are distinguished. A sound-perceiving apparatus is placed inside the pyramid, as well as a vestibular apparatus that detects changes in the position of the body in space. In the pyramid of the temporal bone is the cavity of the middle ear - the tympanic cavity with the auditory ossicles located in it and miniature muscles acting on them. On the lateral surface of the temporal bone there is a hole in the external auditory meatus. The temporal bone is pierced by several canals in which nerves and blood vessels pass (carotid canal for the internal carotid artery, canal of the facial nerve, etc.).

The facial region of the skull. The bones of the facial part of the skull are located under the brain. A significant part of the facial skull is occupied by the skeleton of the chewing apparatus, represented by the upper and lower jaws.

upper jaw - a paired bone involved in the formation of the lower wall of the orbit, the side wall of the nasal cavity, hard palate, openings of the nose - In the upper jaw, a body and four processes are distinguished: frontal, zygomatic, palatine and alveolar, bearing alveoli for the upper teeth.

Lower jaw - unpaired bone, is the only movable bone of the skull, which, connecting with temporal bones, forms the temporomandibular joints. A curved body with alveoli is isolated from the lower jaw for lower teeth, coronoid processes for attaching one of the chewing muscles (temporal) and articular processes.

nasal cavity

The rest, the so-called small bones of the face (paired palatine, inferior nasal concha, nasal, lacrimal, zygomatic, and unpaired vomer) are small in size and are part of the walls of the orbits, nasal and oral cavities. The bones of the skull also include an arcuately curved hyoid bone, which has paired processes - the upper and lower horns.

Joints of the bones of the skull. All bones of the skull, with the exception of the lower jaw and hyoid bone, are fixedly connected to each other with sutures. For ease of study, the upper part of the brain skull is distinguished - vault, or skull roof, and lower part – base of skull.

Skull roof bones connected by continuous fibrous connections - seams, bones of the base of the skull form cartilaginous joints - synchondrosis. The frontal, parietal, and occipital bones form serrated sutures; the bones of the facial skull are connected using flat, harmonious sutures. The temporal bone is connected to the parietal and sphenoid bones with a scaly suture. AT adulthood at the base of the skull, cartilaginous joints are replaced by bone tissue - adjacent bones fuse with each other.

The lower jaw forms a pair with the temporal bone temporomandibular joint. The articular process of the lower jaw and the articular surface on the temporal bone participate in the formation of this joint. This joint is ellipsoid in shape, complex in structure, combined in function. Inside the joint there is an intra-articular disc, fused along the periphery with the joint capsule and dividing the articular cavity into two floors: upper and lower. The temporomandibular joint performs the following movements: lowering and raising the lower jaw, moving the jaw to the sides, moving the lower jaw back and forth.

The skull has a complex relief of both the outer and inner surfaces, due to the location in its bone cavities of the brain (cranial cavity), organs of vision (eye sockets), smell (nasal cavity), taste (mouth cavity), hearing and balance (tympanic cavity). and labyrinths of the inner ear).

In the front of the skull (100. Fig. 23) are located eye sockets, in the formation of which the upper jaws, frontal, zygomatic, sphenoid and other bones participate. Above the eye sockets is the anterior surface of the frontal bone with superciliary arches. Between the eye sockets is the bony dorsum of the nose, formed by the nasal bones, and below is the anterior opening (aperture) of the nasal cavity. Even lower, arcuate alveolar processes of fused maxillary bones and lower jaw with teeth located in the alveoli are visible.

nasal cavity, which is the bone skeleton of the beginning of the respiratory tract, has an inlet (aperture) in front, and two outlets in the back - choanae. The upper wall of the nasal cavity is formed by the nasal bones, the ethmoid plate of the ethmoid bone, the body of the sphenoid bone and the frontal bone. The lower wall is represented by the upper surface of the bony palate. On the side surfaces formed by the maxillary and other bones, three curved plates are visible - the upper, middle and lower nasal conchas.

On the lateral surface of the skull (see Fig. 22) is visible zygomatic arch, which connects zygomatic bone in front with the temporal bone behind and external auditory meatus with located behind him directed downward mastoid process. Above the zygomatic arch is a recess - temporal fossa, where the temporal muscle originates, and below the arc - deep infratemporal fossa, as well as processes of the lower jaw.

In the back of the skull, the external occipital protrusion protrudes posteriorly.

Inferior surface of the skull has a complex terrain. Ahead is solid sky, bounded in front and on the sides by an alveolar arch with upper teeth. Behind and above the hard palate are visible choanae - posterior openings of the nasal cavity, communicating this cavity with the pharynx. On the lower surface of the occipital bone there are two condyles for connection with the I cervical vertebra, and between them - large foramen magnum. On the sides of the occipital bone, a complex relief of the lower surface of the temporal bones is visible with holes for the passage of nerves and blood vessels, the articular fossa and anterior to it a tubercle for articulation with the articular processes of the lower jaw.

Inner surface of the base of the skull has a relief corresponding to the lower surface of the brain. Three cranial fossae are visible here - anterior, middle and posterior. In the front cranial fossa, formed by the frontal and ethmoid bones, are the frontal lobes of the brain. The middle cranial fossa is formed by the sphenoid and temporal bones. In it lie temporal lobes brain, and in the pituitary fossa - the pituitary gland. In the posterior cranial fossa, bounded by the occipital and temporal bones, are the cerebellum and the occipital lobes of the brain.